Germanium supply: the defense optics metal China controls

Germanium supply is small, specialised and mostly Chinese. The metal is recovered as a by-product of zinc refining and from coal fly ash, and China is the world's leading primary producer, with Canada, Belgium and Russia providing most of the rest, according to the USGS. Estimates of China's share of refined output range from about 60% to over three-quarters depending on the source and year ⏳. Germanium is used in fiber optic cables, infrared lenses for thermal imaging and night vision, solar cells for satellites and silicon-germanium chips, and in high-end defense optics it has no direct substitute.

China has required export licences for germanium since 1 August 2023, alongside gallium, and banned exports to the United States in December 2024. That ban is suspended until 27 November 2026, while licensing and the prohibition on supply to foreign military users remain. Prices rose after the controls: germanium reached about $2,839 a kilogram in December 2023, 21% more than a year earlier, according to the US International Trade Commission. See China's critical mineral export controls and gallium.

Key numbers

Supply: who produces germanium

China recovers germanium from zinc smelters and from coal deposits in Yunnan and Inner Mongolia. Outside China, Teck's Trail smelter in Canada recovers germanium from zinc concentrates, Umicore in Belgium refines and recycles it, and Russia has smaller output. The United States produces germanium from zinc concentrates and recycles scrap, but relies on imports for more than half of what it uses. Recycling of optical and electronic scrap is an important secondary source.

Demand: who uses it

The main uses are fiber optics, where germanium tetrachloride raises the refractive index of glass; infrared optics, where germanium lenses and windows are transparent to thermal radiation; solar cells on satellites; and silicon-germanium semiconductors in high-frequency electronics. Defense demand is concentrated in thermal imaging, targeting systems and satellites.

Supply chain chokepoints

By-product supply. Germanium output depends on zinc smelting and on smelters installing recovery circuits; it cannot be expanded quickly.

Chinese licensing. Licences since 2023, a US ban suspended until November 2026 and a standing ban on military end users.

Few refiners outside China. Teck and Umicore are among the only large Western processors.

Price dynamics

Germanium is a thin market with no exchange price, and published prices come from specialist assessors. Prices rose after the 2023 controls, as the USITC data show, and industry reports describe continued tightness outside China in 2025 and 2026, including a sharp fall in Chinese germanium exports in 2025; those figures should be checked against customs data ⏳.

Historical disruptions

Companies and assets along the chain

China. Yunnan Germanium and zinc and coal producers with recovery circuits.

Outside China. Teck (Trail, Canada), Umicore (Belgium), Nyrstar and a few US recyclers.

Users. Fiber optic makers such as Corning, infrared optics manufacturers, satellite builders and defense contractors. This entry is descriptive: the encyclopedia does not publish recommendations.

What to watch

• 27 November 2026, when the US ban suspension expires.
• Chinese export data for germanium metal and oxide.
• New recovery projects at zinc smelters outside China.
• Defense stockpiling in the United States and Europe.

FAQ

Which country produces the most germanium? China, which recovers it from zinc smelting and coal, followed by Canada, Belgium and Russia, according to the USGS.

What is germanium used for? Fiber optic cables, infrared lenses for thermal imaging and night vision, solar cells for satellites and silicon-germanium chips.

Has China banned germanium exports? China has required export licences since August 2023 and banned exports to the United States in December 2024. The US ban is suspended until 27 November 2026, but licences are still required and sales to military users are prohibited.

Can germanium be replaced? In some commercial infrared uses, other materials can substitute at lower performance. In high-end defense optics and fiber optics there is no direct substitute without redesign.